411
THE ESTATES GAZETTE
March 11, 1899.
THE HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE.
The third of a series of lectures on Agricul tural History, which is being delivered before the University of Cambridge, by Sir Ernest Clarke, was given on March 2, at St. John’s College. The period discussed was the first half of the 18th century, with .special reference to agricultural pioneers of the period, “ Turnip ’ Townshend, Jethro Tull and others.
The lecturer began by pointing out the increase of trade and commerce during this period, remarking on the general prosperity evinced by Defoe’s “Tour through Great Britain,” which left a strong impression of the wealth and ease ¡which had come in since the Revolution. After quoting some of Defoe’s descriptions of the mansions and gardens of the period, the lecturer passed to a sketch of the horticultural ideas of the time of Anne and George I., the trim alleys, fountains, and topiary work sc wittily ridiculed by Pope in the “ Guardian. The typical gardener of the period was Stephen Switzer, who in 1733 was the leading spirit of what appeared to be the earliest agricultural society known in England—the Society of Husbandmen and Planters. This had, however, a Scotch prototype in the Society of Scotch Improvers, which, founded in 1723, flourished fox some 20 years under the presidency of Lord Cathcart and Thomas Hope of Rankeilor, until it was broken up by the political dissensions of “the ’45.”
The lecturer then passed to a detailed consideration of the two prominent agricultural improvers of the period, Charles, second Viscount Townshend, and Jethro Tull. “Turnip ” Townshend, in spite of his nickname, was to be regarded rather as a landlord who applied his time and talents to the general improvement of his estates than as an enthusiast for one particular plant. Although his name was alii-teratively and inseparably connected with turnip culture, he was only one of a number of men who had long been experimenting in this branch of husbandry.
Plentiful as was the information respecting Townshend’s political career, it was not ea3y to find any authoritative statement as to the scope and details of his agricultural improvements. Fortunately, this difficulty did not arise in the ease of the other great agricultural figure of the period, who had left abundant information about himself, his ills, his critics, and his system.
The two distinct reforms for which Jethro Tull was entitled ׳to the gratitude of posterity had been very generally confused and misapprehended. Stated in the baldest language, they were : Firstly, the use of the drill for sowing ; and secondly, the sowing of the seed at such wide intervals that the horse hoe could be easily and constantly employed between the rows for stirring and pulverising the soil. The stages by which Tull arrived at these two inventions was shown in a brief sketch of his life, in the course of which the lecturer remarked that though Tull stated, and doubtless honestly believed, that he was the sole inventor of the drill, it was undeniable that a rude kind of drill had been in use in agriculture from a very remote period, whilst Gabriel Plattes, Worlidge and Evelyn amongst English writers had all had something to say on drill husbandry. The lecturer concluded by quoting the appreciations of Tull by Sir John Lawes : “ Tull was quite an original genius and a century in advance of his time,” and Arthur Young : “ Tull has left a name in the world which will probably last as long as the globe we inhabit.”
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scrotum parts of the underline ; a well-covered | scrotum also denotes constitutional vigour. A full, bold scrag and a good sweep from nostril to shoulder are parts which show good development and high breeding.
A well-covered head appears to be associated with a well-bred animal. Notice how much more the Southdown was covered 60 years ago than was any other heath breed. We find it breaking out on the Suffolk sheep now, despite the fact that from time immemorial it was quite free from wool about the poll. There is, evidently, something more than a desire to protect the poll from sores caused by butting.
We see in some breeds a particular feature is more highly prized than in others. What is important in one may be objectionable in another. The prominent Roman nose of the Hampshire finds no favour in the Southdown. The long drooping ears of the Hampshire are out of place on the Southdown, where you prefer them pricked. Some of the white-faced ,breeds are preferred with occasional spots on the ear, while they are objected to on others. There are many characteristic features in other breeds which are held in high regard by those who are best judges of the breeds which may seem to be unimportant to the casual observer, and are sometimes called “ fancy ” points. They have their value because they go to show that the indigenous blood is in the animals. We have seen that the breeds underwent natural change from the original stock because of the climate and herbage that they existed on during centuries. We know that if we take a sheep to other surroundings, it generally does not prosper so well. Whatever changes we make in a breed, we want it to retain some of the constitutional features that, belonged to it, for if not we practically bring another breed on the land, which we have seen is objectionable. How can we prove that an altogether different animal would be sure to be inconsistent in its features. The “ fancy ” points are, therefore, not so unimportant as many might think.
The variation in opinion as to what points should prevail in a particular breed is often caused by the difference in soil, etc., that exists in the different parts of the area in which the breed ■is kept. In one part, a breed darker in the face may be more profitable, while in another a lighter face may be more useful. Beyond ■the local value ,one, however, has to keep in mind the fact that there is an outside world to cater for, therefore an open-mindedness must be exercised so that the market of the breed may be enlarged by developing those features which will extend its usefulness, and therefore its value as a breed. Among ■the most important breeds—particularly among those that spend a portion of the year on •the arable land—it has been shown that the Leicester and the Southdown are the only two breeds which have not received help from outside breeds during the course of their development. We have also seen that these have undergone changes to adapt them to the altered conditions of 'farming during the past century and a half. The old name of Heath breeds has given way to ,that of Down breeds, because the Southdown has made such a strong impression on them. One, however, cannot help thinking how much more valuable some breeds would have been had broader knowledge prevailed, which would have led to breeders, particularly of some of the minor long wool breeds, bringing in rather more outside blood, so that• while not injuring their local value they would have improved them by making them adaptable to districts remote from those in which they were raised. And I would call attention to the fact that a district may be suitable for the fattening of a breed, while it may not bfe for breeding it, because a fattening sheep does not exist long enough under its changed conditions to undergo much change in type, whereas a breeding flock when on other land may do so. On your Downs you can breed an animal of finer i.ype than can be raised elsewhere, but it will fatten in other districts profitably. And ■those in other districts might do well to buy more Southdowns for feeding, because the size and the quality of the Southdown render it so profitable to fatten, as they are most in accord with modern taste and requirement.
mean? We mean that we have developed features that it was desirable to bring into prominence, and have submerged those which are indicative of slow maturity and profitlessness. We must not think because for a few generations objectionable features have been suppressed that they have been eradicated, for that is very erroneous. If we take those breeds which in their unimproved state were homed, or were breechy or hairy, we find that neglect to mate them with due care tends to bring out their horns and to cause more hair to come. If those sheep were returned to the conditions under which they existed before the hand of the breed-maker was put on them, they would fast degenerate towards the old unimproved animal, with its many objectionable features. The breeder has, in fact, to wage perpetual war against this endeavour to revert. By long continued breeding on systematic lines lie prevents sudden change for the worse, in fact■, he finds the advantage of a lengthy pedigree, for without a long pedigree—in other words, breeding on the same lines—like does not produce like ! Without pedigree he gets cross-breeding, or if carried far mongrel breeding.
Everyone knows that two first crosses usually mate well, and that there is fair conformity to type in the offspring. But further crossing brings about great irregularity ; features long lost sight ,of by careful breeding crop up, and there is no uniformity. Even crossing two distinct strains of the same breed, although their pedigree may be long and their selection skilful through generations, may set up this disturbance. Who has not heard from time to time the remark : “ Ever since Mr. So-and-So got that ram from Mr. So-and-So his sheep have done no good”? Yet the ram may have been a■ high-priced one, and mated in another strain would have effected nothing but good, whereas it has given rise to sports under the special conditions of its mating.
Goming now more particularly to the points of sheep, the modern Southdown stands as almost a perfect ■model ; it■ is a model which has long been aimed at.
Why do two judges, each regarded as of equal skill, very frequently disagree in their judgment? It is because the one puts a higher value on certain points than does the other. What is the first essential in a sheep—whether long or short wool ? Is it ■not a good girth, or, as it is called, thickness through the heart? No animal acquires early maturity that has a narrow heart girth. Look at the'old Leicester and the old Southdown, and compare them with the other long and short wool breeds, and one sees at once ,that the other breeds of that time fell short there comparatively. Look at the modem representatives, and you see that all of them have thickened there. The unimproved animals are all narrow in the girth and meet you narrow in front. You must have heart and lung room. The legs, too, have been shortened ; the sheep have not to scour heaths carrying poor pastures all the year round.
Coming to the part where the best butcher’s meat is to be 1found, you see how the loin has been developed ; how the hips seem to have sunk to the level of the loin, how the tail has got into a line with the back, and how the thighs or legs of mutton have thickened. Just look at the old Wiltshire or Norfolk and see how narrow the sheep are across the loin, how goose rumped they are, and how the legs fork right up to the tail, which is set on inches : lower than we find it now. From tail to neck the line must be straight and broad, the shoulders well filled in, making altogether that most important feature, a broad level back.
At one time all sheep were supposed to have been black or brown, and the recurrence ot black lambs is an instance of atavism or reversion. White wool lias been cultivated for many centuries, because it took dye better. Hair . also predominated wool in many cases, as we see in ,the wild breeds of to-day, and as a visit to the Zoological Gardens shows us. In looking at the skm, we want to see it pink, not blue or dark, because a dark skin proves that the animal is trying to go back. On looking at the wool we search for dark hairs, and do not tolerate them even on black-faced sheep behind the setting o'f the ears, for if there are many of these there is a tendency to revert. In the breeds which originated from horned breeds, one of the first points to examine is the horns, for if they appear, ever so small, the sheep is not so improved as it should be, or more likely is reverting. If we find one of these last three blemishes the others require to be looked for more ’losely, and if we find two or more, the animal is making rapid rtrides on the downward grade, although it may have a good carcase, for those were features when the animal was unimproved, and they are features which disappear on highest development.
Some of the heath breeds were deficient in wool on the underside of the body. This is most marked in those which were indigenous to the driest and warmest lair. Therefore, when we want to extend the usefulness of fhe breed so that it may adapt itself to a colder and wetter lair, particularly on arable land, we require them well wooled underneath, ]for this reason we like the rams well woolled on the
THE POINTS AND BREEDS OF SHEEP/
BY W. J. MALDEN,
Principal of the Agricultural College, Uckfield.
II.
The Norfolk you see as a very roughly-bred animal. It had ranged the sandy and chalky heaths of Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, which carried a rough, poor pasture, and it had to travel over heath-covered tracts. It was, in fact, a difficult place to get a living. No wonder it■ appears with long legs, narrow frame, horns and other features, which we now regard as being indicative of a■ badly-bred animal. The hair so predominant in the mountain breed gives way in the damper climate to the wool. The Southdown had ranged the chalk hills, carrying a pasture equal to that of to-day. Moreover, the land near the Downs was in many places of good quality, and when the herbage ran short the sheep made use of the rich pasturage of the neighbouring marshes. The sheep thus raised were naturally of a higher type than the others mentioned. Even at the more remote time, it showed many excellent features,	although it	showed greater
length	of leg and	generally more
looseness of build than it did 60 years ago. As seen in the illustration of 60 years ago, it is a sheep which would not altogether disgrace some of the hill flocks of to-day, though, compared with the highest modern types, it is only, comparatively, a. highlv-bred animal. But the breed then had been under the skilful hands of Mr. Ellman for a long while, and had enjoyed the richer winter food provided by bis advanced system of cropping. As you look at the other heath breeds you would say at■ once, that is the breed■ to improve other heath breeds, and those who were interested in the other breeds saw it was so and made use of it.
The same would be said of the highly improved new Leicester, for it stands out m a marked manner beyond the other long wool breeds. All the coarser long wools came under its influence.
The Norfolk sheep received help from the Southdown, and ־with the help of the food provided by the arable land, and by careful selection, has become the thrifty, grand, hornless Suffolk Down of to-day. It is sometimes said that the .Southdown was not used on ihe Norfolk ; however, an illustration, taken 60 years ago, shows a Norfolk ewe with her lamb got by a Southdown.
The old Wiltshire sheep with its strong horns, white face and coarse Roman nose, is not very suggestive of the modern Hampshire Down, yet, mated with the Southdown, there you find its origin.
In the Morfe Common sheep, which inhabited a tract of good, commonage a few miles from Bridgenorth, was a. black-faced, horned, heath sheep, which the Southdown was instrumental in converting into the modem Shropshire Down.
Probably the Southdown never effected so great a change on any breed than when it was mated with that white-faced, Roman-nosed, heavy-headed horned sheep, which shows what the old Wiltshire sheep was, for it converted that into what is now known as the Hampshire Down, the Roman nose still being a characteristic of the breed. The sheep shown there was one of the last few of the old Wiltshires kept pure. The crossing of the breed with the Southdown having commenced considerably more than 60 years ago.
What the Southdown did on the short wools the new Leicester did on the long wools. All the long wool breeds which survive to-day were influenced by the new Leicester, although ;,he breeds have generally kept a straight line of breeding for a great number of years. The value of the long wool breeds to-day is to a considerable extent in accordance with the thoroughness with which the original breeds were crossed with the Leicester at the time ’hat the improvement of the several breeds was first ■taken in hand. By the value of breeds, I do not confine myself to their profitableness in the particular district to which they were indigenous, but to the wider area over which their usefulness was extended. As an instance, the Lincoln ■is now a sheep of worldwide repute, while the Romney Marsh, which as a sheep of the low-lying land was closely allied, has not secured the same popularity, nor does it realise such high prices. The Leicester was used on it, but only to a limited extent, a strong prejudice being shown against the introduction of outside blood in the first instance, and the period of its adoption was also limited. This does not necessarily imply the Romney men were altogether wrong, for they were dealing with it as its local value was affected, not foreseeing what great possibilities there would be of exportation in the future.
As a ■matter of fact, almost all the more ■important breeds are cross-breds, having been crossed within the present century. When we say we have improved a breed, what do we
* A Paper read at the recent meeting of the East Sussex Farmers' Club, by Mr. W. J. Malden.
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