September 4, 1914.

THE COLLIERY GUARDIAN.

523

The influential British Committee formed in
connection with the Panama-Pacific Exposition have
decided, owing to the war, to dissolve.

One or two other important mining companies
have decided this week to withhold the payment of
dividends.

The funeral of Lord Merthyr took place on Tuesday
at Merthyr.

It has been found necessary in consequence of the
war, to postpone the autumn meeting of the Iron
and Steel Institute which was to have taken place in
Paris.

The four pits which for economic reasons were
recently closed down in the Bristol area have now
been purchased with a view to restarting them.

Mr. W. Weir has been elected president of the
Northumberland Miners Association in succession to
Mr. J. English, resigned.

The Northumberland Miners’ Association have now
resumed payment in full of out-of-work benefit.

The weekly levy of 6d. per man and 3d. per boy
for the Prince of Wales’ Fund has been agreed to by
the South Wales miners.

If this country is in a position to
American detach a large portion of Germany’s
Coal and foreign trade at the present time, it

South should not be forgotten that the
America. United States, free from most of the
difficulties that beset us, cherishes
hopes also of benefiting from the embroilment of
Europe. Amongst other ambitions, the desire to
popularise Pennsylvania and West Virginia coal in
South America is prominent. It is highly probable
that efforts will be made to introduce American Coal
in other markets, but the Argentine Republic and
Brazil naturally present themselves as those which,
a fortiori, are most vulnerable to attack.

The matter, however, is not so simple as it looks.
In the first place, there is the difficulty that the
United States have few ships adapted for this trade.
The Ship Registry Bill, which has just passed
through the American Senate, seeks to provide a
remedy. The Bill admits to registry in the United
States foreign-built ships when owned by citizens of
the United States or corporations organised under the
laws of the United States or of any State ; but it
excludes such vessels from engaging in the coastwise
trade. A section of the Senate Bill also authorises
the President to suspend the laws requiring watch
officers on such vessels to be citizens of the United
States whenever in his judgment there are not
enough citizens of the United States available and
qualified to fill such positions. The Bill also
authorises the President in his discretion to suspend
the li provisions of the law requiring survey, inspec-
tion, and measurement by officers of the United
States of foreign-built vessels admitted to American
registry under the Act.”

We can contemplate but little advantage to our
American cousins on this score. The guerilla
warfare of the “ Dresden ” and other German
cruisers in the Atlantic must soon come to an end
from lack of fuel alone, and insurance will add but
little to the cost of freight. On the other hand, our
ships have the advantage of a return freight, which
is not available to United States shipping, and
exporters are strongly entrenched in South America.
The bulk of the import trade in coal is in the hands
of British exporters, who may be trusted to lose no
opportunity of maintaining and extending their
province. Of course, it is possible that South
American shipping may be called into action.
Brazil, Argentina, Chile and Peru own about 622
ships, with a combined gross tonnage of 204,473
tons.

But another greater difficulty that meets the
American coal operator is the long credit system which
prevails in the Southern Continent. The American
shipper is not accustomed to the c.i.f. basis. This is
so far unknown on the other side that our agile con-
temporary the Black Diamond, of Chicago, interprets
it as “collect including freight.” It is true that in
several cases since the war broke out buyers of
British coal, who usually deal on a c.i.f. basis, have
consented to clear the freight themselves so as to

accommodate the exporter, who still has enormous
sums outstanding to his credit, but it is certain that,
if we are to continue business, a purely cash system
of trading all round is out of the question.

This, however, is what the American shippers
appear to ask for. As the Black Diamond says, “ The
credit habits in certain markets where English coal
is sold regularly are so far out of line with American
practice that our producers do not want to do
business according to them. To-day we stand upon
an f.o.b. cash basis.” South America may consent,
for the time being, to pay cash, but she will most
certainly revert to a long-time basis as soon as the
present lack of coal becomes less incessant.

It is important to remember that such coals as
those of Pocahontas and New River, and some of the
Pennsylvania and West Virginia gas coals, are but
little inferior to the best that we can supply. It is
an open secret that some of the largest firms of
British coal exporters have been heavy buyers of
American steam coals during the last year or two.
Our impression is that if American coals do reach
South America in any quantities, it will be through
the agency of these houses. The markets, it may be
added in conclusion, are most valuable, and the
actual tonnage of coal, which exceeds 6 million tons
per annum, does not by any means represent the
whole of this value, for the connection with South
America, in which coal forms one link, is of national
importance.

A factor that must not be overlooked is the
opening of the Panama Canal, which facilitates the
transport of American coals to Chile, Peru and
Bolivia, at present extensive customers for British
and Australian coals.

The report just issued by the com-
Engine and mittee appointed by the Institution
Boiler Trials, of Civil Engineers to investigate the
subject of steam boiler trials is
intended to be a revision of the report published in
1902 upon the same subject. It is clear that boiler-
testing may be conducted in more than one way.
Roughly, we may perhaps distinguish two sorts—
viz., the highly elaborate, and the commercial kinds,
the latter being designed to include only what is
essential for the object of ascertaining whether any
particular engine or boiler fulfils the conditions
guaranteed by the maker.

To this end the essential test is the determination
of the thermal efficiency of the boiler or engine, as
indicated by what is termed the “equivalent feed”
of the engine per indicated horse-power per hour. But
simple as this test may appear to be, there are many
precautions to be taken if boiler trials are to possess
any real significance. In all cases it is, of course,
essential to know accurately the net calorific value of
the coal used, and this is not by any means an easy
figure to determine owing to the variability of coal
and the difficulty of obtaining a representative
sample. Assuming, however, that this is done, the
question of determining the efficiency of a boiler
resolves itself into ascertaining how much of the
heat value of the coal is available for the evaporation
of water and how much is wasted. As the range of
efficiency may be taken to vary approximately
between 56 and 75 per cent., these heat losses may
be anything between one-half and one-quarter of the
thermal efficiency of the coal. These losses, again,
may be apportioned partly to the boiler and partly
to the furnace. Thus, supposing the case of a boiler
having an efficiency of 75 per cent., the losses,
amounting in this case to 25 per cent, of the heat
value of the fuel, might possibly be distributed as
follows—viz., heat lost in flue gases 10 per cent.,
heat lost in radiation from the boiler 4 per cent.,
heat lost by imperfect combustion 1 per cent., and
heat lost in evaporating moisture in the coal 10 per
cent. Or these losses might be distributed differently
according to circumstances.

The steam-raising qualities of coal, upon which
the performance of a boiler is, in the first place,
dependent, can only be accurately determined by the
practical test of burning the coal in a standard type
of boiler furnace, of known efficiency when worked
with some standard coal. This method, however,
may fail in certain cases, because no single type of

furnace can burn all kinds of coal with maximum
efficiency. Thus we may be driven to a vicious circle
fallacy if we assume either that a particular boiler
has a poor efficiency, or that a particular coal is
deficient in steam-raising qualities, if we are not
careful to make certain that the fuel fits, so to speak,
the furnace, or vice versa. According to size and
clinkering properties, so must the grate surface, the
thickness of fuel bed, and the draught be regulated.
If these factors are not properly considered the
operator will never be quite certain whether he is
using coals to test a boiler, or the boiler to test the
coal.

It may, indeed, be a question whether isolated
boiler tests afford any really accurate information
even if they have been of sufficient duration to
reduce the unavoidable error in calculating the
fuel consumption during the test. There are
several ways in which the elimination of this
error may be attempted. In the report before
us it is suggested to use a formula based upon
the weight of green coal C which will form
1 cubic foot of incandescent fuel, which is
assumed to be 20 lb. for large coal and 30 lb. for
small slack, which is obviously a comparatively
rough approximation. Thus if W is the number of
pounds of fuel consumed per hour, and n the
percentage of error, the trial should last 100 C A/6n W
hours, where A is grate area in square feet.

In the United States the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers have adopted a standard
method of conducting boiler tests, drawing the fire
completely just before the beginning and end of the
experiment, a plan which involves quite unknown
heat changes. In the Montreal Government tests
recently carried out, the “alternate” method was
adopted, which consists in making each test
sufficiently long to render negligible the condition of
the fire at the beginning or end of the trial. It is
probable that no single plan would avail with all
qualities of coal. In the case of a very ashy coal, or
one making a pasty clinker adhering to the firebars,
there will be much difficulty in arriving at a correct
result, however the duration of the test may be
arranged.

To arrive at a real result, whether testing a
boiler by means of coal or coal by means of a boiler,
it is evident that the fuel should be given the chance
to exercise its maximum evaporative effect. In the
case of boiler testing, this can only be done by
careful selection of the fuel. In the case of fuel
testing, an equally careful selection of the type of
furnace is necessary. Thus the problem of boiler
testing is a complex one, and the researches of the
committee of the Institution of Civil Engineers are a
valuable aid to its proper comprehension.

The Government is at the present
Industrial time bestowing praiseworthy atten-

Alcohol. tion. upon the enlargement of the
sphere of British commerce by the
absorption of that portion of German trade which
comes within our means to control. Amongst the
numerous manufactured articles already scheduled
by the Board of Trade as offering reasonable scope
for British enterprise, there is none more promising
than certain branches of the chemical industry,
including not only the manufacture of aniline dyes
but also many other coal tar products and refined
compounds in which Germany has been allowed
almost a monopoly of control.

The loss of the aniline-dye industry has been
repeatedly bemoaned by our chemical manufacturers,
and it is generally admitted that one of the most
potent factors operating in favour of the success of
Germany in that domain of industry has been the
want of elasticity in our Excise laws which has
virtually deprived our own manufacturers of the
advantages of cheap alcohol.

Prof. Tilden has recently declared that we have
the chemical knowledge, skill and experience to
recover this trade; but if so essential a matter as
readily available alcohol is absent from the resources
of both experimentalist and manufacturer, there is
not much hope of satisfactory progress.

This question has recently been forcibly reopened
in the public Press, and attention should be bestowed