910

THE COLLIERY GUARDIAN.

May 12, 1916.

bating to kerogen a petroleum origin. One or two
practical points arose as a result of this conclusion.
The Empire required vast quantities of petroleum, ind
its resources in oil fields, though fairly well known, had
not been so actively exploited as they might be. Except
in the Lothians and in New South Wales, oil shale
resources had been somewhat neglected. Apart from
these fields, however, there were good oil shales in New
Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Quebec, Tasmania, the Trans-
vaal and Natal, none of which were worked extensively,
while petroleum or bituminous shales among the Jurassic
strata of both Scotland and England were fairly well
known. What had been learned about the nature and
origin of kerogen should be of use in the development
of the known shale fields, and in the discovery of new
sources, which was becoming a matter of growing
importance to the Empire.

HUMIDITY AND ITS MEASUREMENT.

Some notes on the above subject are given in the
Iowa Engineer by Kenneth G. Smith, Professor
Engineering Extension, Iowa State College. The
humidity in per cent, is equal to the ratio- of the pressure
corresponding to the dew point to the 'saturation pressure
corresponding to the temperature of the mixture. An
example will make this method of measuring humidity
clear. Suppose that air has a temperature of 70 clegs,
and the dew point is found to 50 degs. What is the
humidity and weight of vapour per cubic foot? From a
table of vapour pressure we find that at 55 degs. the
saturation pressure is 0-436 in. of mercury. At 75 degs.
the saturation pressure is 0-8735 in. of mercury. The
humidity is then	_ 59 per cent, very nearly.

0 S/oo

If the air were saturated at 75degs. it would contain
9-36 x 0-5 = 4’68 grains per cu. ft.

To measure moisture in this way would be difficult
under other than laboratory conditions, and for that
reason another method, using a wet and dry bulb
thermometer has been adopted. The dry bulb thermo-
meter is simply an ordinary Fahrenheit thermometer.
The wet bulb thermometer is exactly the same except
that it has a piece of muslin or other porous material
wrapped around the bulb and saturated with water.
When both are exposed to the air, the wet bulb thermo-
meter immediately falls to a lower temperature than the
dry bulb thermometer, due to the fact that the evapora-
tion of the moisture in the cloth requires heat. The
drier the air, the more the evaporation and the greater
the drop in temperature. From the difference in
temperature between the wet and dry bulb thermo-
meters the humidity may be calculated. In practice it
is not calculated, but read directly from a table or curve.

One might naturally ask the reason for the fixed
temperature to which the wet bulb thermometer drops.
This temperature is known as the temperature of
adiabatic saturation, and is fixed for any dry bulb
temperature and percentage of humidity. To under-
stand this statement, imagine three thermometers
placed in a body of air to which moisture is to be added
without exchange of heat with any source outside of the
air and water. The - first thermometer is arranged to
show the dew point, and reads the lowest. The second
►or dry bulb thermometer shows the dry bulb tempera-
ture or, as we call it, the temperature of the air. The
third thermometer shows a temperature between the
dry bulb temperature and the dew point. To make the
case concrete, let us consider air at 70 degs. and 33 per
cent, saturated. Conditions are then as follow :■—-Dry
bulb temperature, 70 degs.; dew point, 39 degs.; wet
bulb temperature, 54degs.

If now a' fine spray of water having a temperature
higher than 39 degs. is introduced, the air absorbs
moisture, with the result that the dry bulb temperature
drops at once, the dew point temperature rises and the
wet bulb temperature remains stationary. The reason
is that the. total heat of the air is constant. The heat
required to evaporate the moisture is rendered latent,
and the sensible heat- as shown by the dry bulb thermo-
meter becomes less, but the sum of latent and sensible
heat is constant. If moisture continues to be added,'the
dew point temperature continues to rise, the dry bulb
temperature continues to fall until all three are
stationary at the wet bulb temperature, when the air
is saturated. The total heat of the air- is the same as
it was before the moisture was added, but it contains
more latent and less sensible heat. On the total heat
the wet bulb temperature depends, and therefore it is
fixed for any temperature and percentage of humidity,
because the total heat of the air in the given condition
is fixed.

In the above example the percentage of humidity may
be calculated if we know the dry and wet bulb tempera-
tures. These are as given, dry bulb 70 degs., wet bulb
54 degs.; 54 degs. is the temperature of adiabatic satura-
tion, and at this, temperature the air contains 62-14
grains per lb. when saturated. The total heat of the
mixture equals the heat of the air plus the heat of the
moisture equals

0-2375 x 54 + LO847t*o6tl4 _ 22-44 B.T.U.

Since the total heat of the air is constant during tho
change the total heat at 70 degs. equals the total beat
at 54 degs.

0-2375 x 70 -1- (1,084-7) + 0*48 x 16 x X = 22'44

X = grains of moisture in air at 70 degs.; 0*48 = specific
heat of the vapour. Solving for X we have X = 37-2
grains per pound of air. Since saturated air at 70 degs.
contains 110*01 grains per pound the humidity is
372

JlOqjY — 33 per cent.

MINING INDUSTRY AND MILITARY
SERVICE.

At the North Riding Appeal Tribunal at Middlesbrough, a
firm owning ironstone mines in Cleveland, appealed in
respect of a number of men employed in the mines. It was
stated that there was a considerable number of single men
in the mines. The employees had been badged since the
appeal was made to the tribunal below. The mines were
working full time, and whereas at the beginning of the war
the staff was 360, it was now only 305. The reason that
there were so many single men in the mines was because
of housing difficulties. If married men could be obtained
every single man would be released. The manager with-
drew the appeals in respect of six men, and these were
accepted. The opinion was expressed that the remaining
men were necessary to maintain the output of ironstone, and
exemption until October 1 was granted, conditional upon
the men remaining in their present employment.

The same firm applied in respect of employees at the
blast furnaces and coke ovens. It was stated that the firm
were engaged on 90 per cent, munition work. Members
of the tribunal expressed surprise that the local tribunal
had refused the applications in both these cases. One
member said at one of the local works a superintendent from
London gave instructions that women should be employed
in mine filling. Another member : It is absurd. Con-
ditional exemption was granted until October 1.

More than the number required of Fife miners have
handed in their names as being willing to join the mining
battalion for tunnelling purposes. The management .in some
cases are demurring in giving men consent to leave the
pits, as they assert that they can ill afford to lose their
services.

At the Sedgley (Staffordshire) tribunal, a large firm of
colliery owners applied for exemption for a married employee,
aged 31 years. He was cashier and practically surface
manager at two collieries. Of twelve managing clerks at
applicants’ collieries they had lost five, who had been
replaced by lady clerks, but it was very difficult to find suit-
able women for this work. Three months’ exemption was
granted.

Six months’ exemption was granted at a Staffordshire
tribunal to a young surface horse driver at a local colliery.
The applicant suffered from an affection of the eyes, and only
weighed 93 lb.

The question of a supply of skilled miners for tunnelling
companies for the Army is now under the consideration of
the employers and workmen’s representatives in the coal
trade in Scotland.

Mr. J. Masterton, divisional inspector of mines for
Scotland, who presided at the mining tribunal at
Dunfermline, observed that practically all the collieries were
employing girls. Mr. J. Robertson, of the Miners’ Union,
said that the handling of hutches on an old-fashioned pit
bank such as at Kingseat was not work for women. Bailie
Mackie said that was quite right, but his contention was
that that was the only class from which they could get men
for the Army. The military authorities found working down
the mine some men who claimed to be miners and had only
been a few weeks down the mine, but could not be touched.
If they wanted to win the war they must get men. It was
agreed that two of the men be taken, and to exempt the
manager. A banksman was also granted exemption, not-
withstanding Bailie Mackie’s contention that an older man
could be got.

At the first sitting of the colliery tribunal for Stirling,
Mid and East Lothian and West Lothian, the managers of
32 collieries were examined as to the number of workers
employed before the war, the number employed at the
present time, the number who had entered the pits since
August 1915, the number who had left since that date, and
the number of men who had joined the Colours since the
outbreak of the war. It was shown that 32 per cent, of the
workmen had already joined the Colours. In two collieries
the percentage of enlistments was as high as 50 per cent.
The question of what position the court should adopt towards
those who have entered the mines since the passing of the
Military Service Act wars under consideration, but no decision
was arrived at.

Success is attending the effort to raise a strong corps of
miners for tunnelling work, a large number of men having
already answered the call of the military authorities. Lieut.
Gid, who before the war was a miners’ leader at
Abertillery, has been specially active in securing recruits
for tunnelling; and the War Office has recognised the needs
of the situation by altering the original rate of pay, and
consenting to give 6 s. per day for qualified men, thus
making concession to the representations which were put
forward both by employers and by miners’ leaders on the
subject. Meetings are to be held in order to secure still
more recruits, the need being urgent, and employers being
willing to release men who satisfy the requirements of the
authorities. The 6s. per day will be in addition to the
usual allowances for dependants.

News has reached the Rhondda giving particulars of the
death of Lieut. Emrys Evans, Royal Engineers, formerly
of the Glamorgan Collieries, Llwynypia. Enlisting in the
Public Schools Battalion at the outbreak of war, he was
transferred to the Engineers, and drafted with a special
company. A few weeks ago he was home on leave; and for
gallant service, immediately on returning to the front, was
commended for bravery ; but he met his death on April 29
during a gas attack, while searching for a brother officer
who was missing.

At Tirydail Colliery, Ammanford, the miners have
decided not to make any permanent appointment of a
checkweigher, their idea being that on termination of the
war so many men will return unfit for underground work
that the surface job should be then available for one of
them.

Appeals by a number of colliers at Nine Mile Point
Colliery have been heard, the local tribunal having refused
exemption. Their plea was that they were already in work
of national importance, having direct relation to the war ;
but the appeals were rejected.

Pontypridd and Rhondda district of miners have iiad
under discussion the question of making provision for dis-
charged soldiers and sailors who are disabled, and it was
decided to call a conference of local trade councils, repre-
sentatives of churches, etc., whereat the matters might
be fully dealt with.

With regard to the selection of men for military service,
Mr. G. Rowe, of Morriston, made a serious complaint at the
sitting of Swansea district tribunal, pointing .out that

uniformity was not being observed as between different
establishments. Fie said that at one works there were 50
or 60 more men than were required, whilst he could not
keep his mills running through lack of labour. Some of bis
men who had recently gone were married. His firm were
being pressed for deliveries by the Government, and only
the preceding day had had an enquiry for 10,000 boxes for
food purposes. He criticised the existing practice, and
asked if it was not absurd that the box makers should be
reserved, while the men who made the plates were not.
Representations should be made to the authorities pointing
out the conditions that existed. Nearly 200 men had gone
from his works ; and only 13 mills out of 18 were working.
If all the young men were now to go, it would mean the
closing of 'two more mills.

Before the Ebbw Vale tribunal, the company’s repre-
sentative said that men were being sent away, and others
had to be obtained in their places. It had been decided to
start one of the Ebbw Vale blast furnaces, and the Ministry
of Munitions were asked for men. They sent a list of 60
names down for them to choose from, and 21 of those were
young, single, eligible men; men who were physically fit for
the Army. The chairman of the tribunal thereupon declared
that he would not be .a party to sending away married men
with responsibilities, and many with large families, when
the Government sent medically fit men of only 19 and 20
years of age to the district. It was explained that these
men were with the Army—and treated as such—but other
speakers described the proceedings as disgraceful and
farcical. The tribunal decided to seek information from
the authorities.

A Shincliffe banktop man, who described himself as an
assistant magazine keeper, a deliverer of explosives, a part-
time insurance agent, and an assistant postman, applied
to the Durham Rural tribunal for conditional exemption.
He explained that he had charge of three magazines of
explosives, and was responsible for the delivery of high
explosives to 15 collieries and a quarry, handling an average
of four or five tons per 'week. He was exempted until next
month.

Before the Consett magistrates, on Tuesday, Bartholomew
Kelly, in the employ of the Durham Miners’ Association,
was charged with having absented himself from the Army.
It appeared that he attested on March 2, but failed to report
himself on May 8. He had appealed to the tribunals as
a conscientious objector to combatant service and had failed.
Asked why he wrote his letters on Durham Miners’ Associa-
tion notepaper, he stated that that was a privilege he
enjoyed. He was fined 40s., and ordered to be handed over
to the military authorities. He informed the magistrates
that he would not pay.

At Whitehaven tribunal, a mining company applied for the
exemption of 82 single men. The clerk observed that this
application was before the tribunal on a previous occasion,
and they granted them all exemption for one month, with a
view to finding out how many of these men were employed
in the said business on August 14 last. The authorities had
made all workers in iron ore mines who had been working in
the mines on August 14 last reserved men. In the case of
this mining company, 10 of the men were not in their employ
on August 14 last. The company’s engineer stated that nine
of these men were badged. He considered they were abso-
lutely essential to the business. The men were all under-
ground workers. The application was adjourned, the chair-
man explaining that they wanted more information from the
Home Office.

At the same tribunal, an Egremont timber feller and wood
cutter, a single man, aged 34, was recommended by the Work-
ington military authority for exemption until June 1. The
man’s employer put in letters showing that he was supply-
ing pit timber on contract. He had applied for badges for
his men, and was waiting for a reply. Exemption was
granted till July 1.

TRADE AND THE WAR.

According to a statement by Mr. Runciman in the House
of Commons, the building of merchant ships is being
expedited by all practicable means. Twenty-six vessels for
neutral owners are being built in British yards, and these
ships have been fixed to trade in cargoes approved by the
Board of Trade during the war, at about half the market
rates of freight.

A letter in The Times, from Mr. Samuel Instone, suggests
that a large proportion of the orders for new shipping
tonnage, purporting to be on- account of neutral owners,
really comes from German sources, and that in peace time
these vessels, under German ownership, will compete with
the lessened British tonnage.

Mr. Runciman, in Paris, had a second interview with
Mi 'Sembat, the Minister of Public Works, in the course of
which they discussed the problems connected with trans-
port, freights and coal. The Journal (Paris) .writes : “ The
work of Mr. Runciman should be all the more appreciated
in that it is of importance at the present moment that the
coal question should be settled promptly.”

As an instance of the straits to which South Amercian
railw-ays are driven in the matter of fuel, it is reported that
one of the leading Argentine railways had to make a con-
tract for 80,000 tons of coal from the United States, and
although not to be compared in quality with Welsh steam
coal, the price, delivered in Argentina, is within a fraction
of £5 a ton. This figure compares with an average of
between 35 s. and 40s. a ton in normal times. The com-
panies are said to be economising in every possible way by
using wood and other substitutes for coal wherever practic-
able, and some saving in mileage is also being secured.

A recent Order in Council prohibits trading with the
Copenhagen Coal and Coke Company (Kjobenhavns-Kul-
Koks-Kompagni, A/S), Islands Brygge 22, Copenhagen,
under the Trading with the Enemy (Extension of Powers)
Act.

The Commercial Intelligence Branch of the Board of Trade
has received applications from firms seeking to get into com-
munication with manufacturers of goods previously imported
from Germany or Austria. These goods include bright steel
strip; steel strip in cut lengths or coils, suitable for the manu-
facture of corsets ; nickel steel turbine blading; steel woven
wire for screening ores, 16, 24, 30, 40, 60, 90 meshes (6 yds.
of each).

Sir. A. Williamson, M.P., in a letter to the Press, says
that 65 per cent, of a ship owner’s tonnage is requisitioned
by the British Government at pre-war rates. On the remain-
ing vessels the ship owner appears to make an enormous