June 3 2, 1914.

THE COLLIERY GUARDIAN.

1315

transition series. Owing, however, to the frequent
splitting of most seams, and consequent uncer-
tainty in the correlation, it is impossible to state the
number of coals so far proved on each horizon, although
this is likely to exceed 15 to 18 in the middle, and 10
to 12 in the transition measures. These numbers
probably err as on the side of an under rather than as
an over estimate.

Samples of the thicker seams have been analysed,*
and the results obtained have been kindly placed at my
disposal by Dr. Malcolm Burr. The great majority of
the coals are stated to be suitable for steam and house-
hold purposes. The thick coal lying high up in the
transition measures, which is now being worked at
Snowdown Colliery, and probably also at Tilmanstone,
is a gas and coking coal. A few other thinner seams
of a similar nature occur in the transition measures,
and occasionally also in the middle coal measures,
where, however, steam coals are the rule. There is
evidence that some seams alter in character when traced
laterally. The highest carbon percentage, quoted in the
list of analyses placed at the writer’s disposal, is 89*72,
with hydrogen 4*94, and ash 1*55. The lowest carbon
percentage is 74*70, with hydrogen 5*19, ash 4*68, and
volatile matter 37*18—a gas and coking coal. The
average carbon percentage, however, lies between 84
and 87.

The Flora and Fauna.

The coal measures of Kent are, as a rule, rich in fossil
plants, which, with but few exceptions, are very evenly
distributed throughout, though at some levels they are
more abundant and varied than at others. The fossil
floras have been carefully examined, as fast as the
evidence has been obtained, ever since the first borings
or sinkings reached the coal measures in 1890. The
earlier of them were described by Prof.Zeiller, and others
have been more recently figured by the present writer.
The total known flora has risen from 10 species in 1894,
to 26 in 1909, and now comprises 96 species, not includ-
ing several other incomplete determinations. These
belong to two horizons—the transition and the middle
coal measures.

The fauna of the Kentish measures is much more
scanty than the flora, and the occurrence of such fossils
is by comparison very rare. Beds containing mollusca
have, however, been met with occasionally in several of
the borings. These animal remains do not fall within
the writer’s province, but he understands that they are
receiving attention at other hands. Spirorbis casts, but
not Spirorbis limestones, are met with in the shales of
both the transition and middle coal measures, and they
sometimes occur on the plant impressions.

Among the rarest fossils are a few specimens of Prest-
wichia, and insect remains. Some of the latter have
been already described by Mr. H. Bolton.

In the carboniferous limestone series plants are very
rare, and only one specimen, a leaf of Cordaites, has been
met with in the "Walmestone cores. The fauna is poor,
and since in most cases only a few feet of the limestones
have been penetrated at each boring, the chances of col-
lecting specimens have been small. In the case of the
Trapham boring, however, a few specimens were
obtained, which have been identified by Mr. Woods as
Syringothyris .cuspidata (Martin), Seminuloid Athyrids,
and Productus sp. From Stodmarsh, Mr. Woods also
recognised Productus corrugato-hemisphoericus Vaugh,
and Productus sp., while Dr. Strahan has also recorded
the same species from Ebbsfleet.

Conclusions.

The Kent coalfield, looked at from a tectonic stand-
point, forms another link in the Armorican set of car-
bonferous tracts, which stretch from Westphalia through
Belgium, the North of France, and Southern England
into South Wales, and perhaps into Ireland. The
general strike of these areas is a little north of west, and
south of east, although there are some exceptions. They
are bounded, with again some exceptions, on the north
and south by one or other of the several, more or less
parallel and continuous ge-anticlines, which constitutes
the Armorican flexures. These possess a general strike
more or less parallel with the included synclinal coal-
fields. The Kent coalfield proves to be no exception to
the rule. The position of the northern fold has been
approximately located, while the southern, at least in
part, obviously lies far out to sea beneath the waters of
the English Channel. These are undoubtedly the major
axes of folding in Kent, and their trend has been recently
called “ Armoricanoid ” by Prof. Charles Lap worth, a
convenient term which avoids any reference to the age
of the folding.

Other important but subsidiary axes of a different
trend may be expected to occur. These have not yet
received the attention that they deserve in the southern
coalfields of England. The best example hitherto made
clear is the roughly north and south axis in Somerset
and Gloucestershire : this is dominant as regards the
Radstock and Bristol coalfields, which possess a north
and south strike. The trend here appears to be Malver-
noid. In Kent, as has been shown in the present paper,
there seem to be some grounds for believing that a fold
of similar trend exists beneath the Straits of Dover, not
very far from the south-eastern coast line. The Kent
coalfield is thus not now continuous with that of the
Pas-de-Calais.

The Franco-Belgian and the South of England areas
have in the past been the seat of repeated earth move-
ments, which have given rise, not only to the broad folds
above indicated, but to overthrusts of a most interesting
nature. The fact that, at the present time, no evidence
of an overthrust has been forthcoming from Kent is pro-
bably to be interpreted solely as a measure of our present
ignorance of the geology of the basin. Such evidence
may reasonably be sought for as a future possibility.

While the series of coalfields indicated above are
undoubtedly related tectonically, it must be borne in

* Analyses of the coals at Shakespeare Cliff Colliery are
given by Etheridge, 1900, and Thompson, 1906.

mind that it is very doubtful whether any real relation-
ship exists bet wen the individual areas themselves. In
the first place, it must be remembered that the folding is
post Westphalian, although not necessarily post carboni-
ferous. It naturally brought into tectonic relationship
all the areas of carboniferous rocks affected by it, what-
ever their previous history may have been. Secondly, as
the writer has pointed out in a previous paper, the
palaeobotanical horizons represented in each of the
present coalfields, thus brought into tectonic relation-
ship, do not agree. The following table gives a
comparison of the horizons represented in Kent with
those of the nearest coalfields on the east and west :—

A Comparison of the Kentish Horizons with those of
THE NEAREST COALFIELDS TO THE EAST AND WEST.

Lower Middle Transition Upper
Coalfield. coal coal coal coal
measures, measures, measures, measures.

Pas-de-Calais .. Present...	Present... Present... Absent

Kent ......... ... Absent ... Present... Present... Absent

Radstock-Bristol. Absent ... Absent ... Present... Present
Devon............. Absent	... Present... Absent ... Absent

It is results such as these, obtained from a study of
the Welsh borderland coalfields, which have recently led
the writer to abandon the “ continuous sheet theory,”
as being in most cases a false initial assumption. Thus
a tectonic relationship, impressed on the rocks after the
close of carboniferous deposition, is by no means always
a real relationship.

_ The history of events in East Kent in carboniferous
times appears to have been briefly as follows :—At an
earlier period, a carboniferous limestone series was
deposited, which was eventually elevated. This old floor
of the area remained elevated during the epochs when,
in other parts of England, the lower coal measures with
the millstone grit were laid down, and meanwhile it
underwent denudation. In middle coal measure times,
the area became again depressed, deposition set in, and
continued into transition coal measure times. During
the latter period, elevation again took place with sub-
sequent denudation, and the district remained raised
until the first layer of the “ blanket ” of mesozoic sedi-
ments was deposited. At some period, between the two
events last mentioned, the whole area was folded as the
result of earth movements.

The great features of the sedimentation during upper
carboniferous times in Kent were the abundance of plant
material, which eventually became converted into coal,
and the manner of its deposition. The chief character-
istics of the rocks of this period in Kent are, not only the
abundance of the coals, but the extraordinary tendency
of the seams to split, and to become inconstant in thick-
ness. The causes which have given rise to such
phenomena are unfortunately little understood at
present. It is, of course, known that these features are
exhibited in a marked degree by certain more or less
wholly lacustrine deposits on the Continent, but the
writer is not disposed at present to regard the type of
deposition met with in Kent as other than estuarine. He
is inclined provisionally to explain the splitting of the
seams on an hypothesis of unequal local elevation and

• depression, or minor tilting.

Summary.

(1)	The wholly concealed coalfield of Kent has a proved
area of 200 square miles (128,000 acres), while the total
area exceeds 250 square miles. Part of the coalfield lies
beneath Eastern Kent, but a large portion beneath the
North Sea, Straits of Dover, and the English Channel.

(2)	The general strike of the field is about 30 degs.
south of east and north of west. The dip of the tran-
sition coal measures is small (2 to 3 degs) in the only two
localities in which definite evidence on this point is avail-
able. The direction of the dip at Tilmanstone Colliery is
nearly normal, whereas that at Snowdown is in almost
exactly the opposite direction.

(3)	The area as a whole is a syncline, occupying the
flanks of an anticline beneath the Straits of Dover. The
dominant folds, however, have an Armorican trend, and
lie to the north and south of the field, limiting it in these
directions.

(4)	The northern boundary has been fairly accurately
located in part. It lies north of the river Stour, but, for
the most part, south of the northern coast line of Kent.

(5)	On the east, the anticline above mentioned, lying
perhaps between four and eight miles to the east of the
coast line of South-East Kent, limits the coalfield, which
is not now continuous with that of the Pas-de-Calais.

(6)	The southern boundary lies far out to sea beneath
the English Channel, and has not been located, neither
has the western limit of the field. There are, however,
reasons for believing that the latter will prove to be an
important boundary fault. There is still some doubt at
the present time as to the position of the major axis of
the field, and the highest beds there developed. Further,
nothing is as yet known as to the position and throw of
the major faults, and so far no evidence of an overthrust
has been found.

(7)	the surface of the area occupied by carboniferous
rocks, neglecting the 1,000 feet of mesozoic sediments by
which they are in most localities overlain, is an inclined
plane, the ground sloping rapidly but regularly to the
west and south-west from an elevated region near Ripple
and Deal in the east.

(8)	Both upper and lower carboniferous sediments are
represented. The latter exceed 450 feet in thickness,
and the surface of the lower carboniferous had under-
gone denudation before the coal measures were uncon-
formably deposited upon them.

(9)	The coal measures of Kent consist of the tran-
sition series (1,700 to 2,000 feet thick), and the middle .
coal measures (2,000 feet), the total thickness yet proved
being between 3,700 and 4,000 feet. The lower coal
measures with the millstone grit are unrepresented.

(10)	The measures are throughout grey in colour. No
red rocks, Espley rocks, nor Spirorbis limestones occur,
and igneous rocks have not been proved. Ironstones
and limestones are either very rare or absent.

(11)	The coals are well distributed in the measures,
and are often of considerable thickness and economic
value. The seams show, however, a marked tendency
to split, and the components are frequently inconstant in
thickness. Steam and household coal predominate,
though gas coals also occur.

(12)	The most productive portions of the measures are
the higher part of the transition, and the lower part of
the middle coal measures. The intermediate ground is
frequently very barren.

Notes.from the Coalfields.

[Local Correspondence.]

South Wales and Monmouthshire.

Important Case Raising Neto Question Affecting Collieries
Coal Rates on New Railways—Signalling Rules Declared
“ Impracticable ” — Monmouthshire Mining School
Difficulty — Startling Development in Workmen's
Demands—Presentation to Sir W. J. Thomas—Settling
Senghenydd Compensation — A Checkweigher Removed
for Interfering with Work.

A very important case affecting colliery proprietors will
come before the High Court within the next few days.
The Cambrian Combine and the Powell Duffryn Company
seek to recover from Glamorgan Council damages for loss
sustained by rioting, and also for charges incurred through
maintenance of the police sent to protect colliery property
during the strike. The case is believed to be the first of its
kind to come into court, and therefore arouses special
interest. No less than .£23,000 is said to be the amount of
the Cambrian Combine claim alone.

One of the first results of the re-assembling of Parliament
this week was that the House of Commons Committee
disposed of the Great Western Railway Company’s Bill
concerning (inter alia) new railways in South Wales which
will serve the coal trade. Swansea Traders and Freighters’
Association opposed formally in order to obtain lower rates
on the new lines, and Mr. Hewlett gave evidence; but on
behalf of the company it was stated that the new shorter
route would govern the rate on the longer route. Even if
traffic were sent by the longer route for convenience, the
company could only charge as for the shorter.—The com-
mittee decided in favour of the company’s proposals—these
relating to 8J miles in the neighbourhood of Llanelly, and
new lines at Port Talbot.

Banksmen in this coalfield complain that the new signal-
ling rules which come into operation on July 1 are
impracticable; and the matter came, on Tuesday, before the
Executive Council of the Federation. It was resolved to
bring it before the Miners’ Federation, of Great Britain,
inasmuch as these rules had formed the subject of arbitration
between the coalowners and that body.

At the back of the case which the federation sets up
against the mining school established by the coalowmers at
Treforest, is a feeling that may operate against the interests
of workmen students. There is said to be an idea that the
poorer pupils would not secure recognition, but that those of
a more well-to-do class (who can attend the daily sessions)
would secure advantages that are not open to the working
miner. Their desire is that there should be greater
facilities for the working men—that, in addition to the
evening classes there should be other classes on Saturdays,
and that the proceedings of the higher mining schools should
be adapted to the convenience of working men so that they
could more easily, and at less expense, qualify themselves
for better positions. Allegation is also made that the wage-
earner, although he may qualify himself, does not secure
appointments, but that those of the better class, who are
able to attend during the day time, are given preference over
him when vacancies occur. The subject came again before
Monmouthshire Education Committee this week, and a
motion w*as carried appointing a special mining committee of
17 members to deal with all matters relating to the proposed
county council mining school at Crumlin.

A startling development of workmen’s demands is
reported as having been made at a meeting in the Rhondda
on Monday. The subject under discussion was pit head
baths, the men being urged to press forward and support
that project. Even if the men had to bear their share of
of the cost (said the miner’s agent), it would be cheaper for
them to adopt the system of pit head baths. Really, it
should be a charge upon the industry—as well as the provi-
sion of working clothes for the men !

Sir W. J. Thomas (Ynyshir) has a controlling interest in
the Ynysfeio Collieries; and on Saturday, at Treherbert,
the officials and workmen presented him with an illuminated
address in appreciation of the honour of knighthood conferred
upon him. Councillor Rees, checkweigher, who made the
presentation, described Sir William as a model employer.
He lived among them, and was always accessible; and he
had done great things for Cardiff Hospital, and also very
much good work anonymously.

Judge Bryn Roberts sat for two days at Senghenydd last
week, and dealt with compensation apportionments in cases
of total dependency arising out of the explosion. The
amounts which will be obtained by beneficiaries under the
Lord Mayor’s fund were taken into account; and, therefore,
in the 200 cases dealt with, the apportionments were mostly
lower than usual—ranging from 3s. to 10s. per week. His
Honour descended the mine, and was underground for over
two hours, inspecting the bashings which were erected to
isolate and extinguish the fire; and also the side walls, etc.,
which have now been put up preparatory to removal of the
bashings.

The Caerphilly district miners’ committee seek to ascertain
how many dependency claims in respect of Senghenydd will
be contested, their intention being to take the necessary steps
for safeguarding the interests of claimants, if necessary.

Further colliery developments in Rhigos, Vale of Neath,
were initiated on Tuesday, when Master Rhys Llew’ellyn,
four years of age, cut the first sod of a new drift. He is
the little son of Mr. D. R. Llewellyn, Fairfield, Aberdare,
who is carrying out the new venture, and grandson of
Aiderman Rees Llewellyn, of Bwllfa and Merthyr Dare
Collieries.

The magistrates at Swansea police court have had before
them a case wherein the managers of Brynliw summoned
the men’s checkweigher for an offence under the Mines Act.
The plaintiffs were Messrs. T. Williams and Son, colliery