334

THE COLLIERY GUARDIAN.

February 14, 1913.

of gas in any of the shaft sinkings, but in sinking some of
the newer shafts in the Raneegunge district, safety lamps
had been made compulsory. It was probable that gas
would also be found in the Jherria coalfield as the sinkings
increased in depth.

As greater depths and more extended workings were
attained, a considerable alteration would have to be made
in the systems of working, although that matter had
already received much attention, and any inspection of the
present workings at the larger collieries would show a very
great change for the better as compared with 10 or 12 years
ago. Three of the chief faults in the earlier laying-out and
working of the collieries were the following:—(a) The
driving-in of far too many inclines from the surface along
the outcrop of the seams and then working the outcrop coal
right back to the surface, leaving practically no protection
against the water which now poured into many of the
workings during the rains. In a number of instances the
whole of the outcrop coal had been quarried, leaving old
surface workings to fill up with water during the rains.
(5) The working out of large areas into pillars, without the
provision of any system of panels or barriers to form a
protection against water, fire or creep, or to enable the
pillars to be worked within a reasonable time of their having
been formed. In many cases, when the time came for the coal
to be worked, there would be considerable loss on account
of the coal round the faces of the pillars having perished,
(c) The originally small dimensions of the pillars and the
steady reduction in their size, owing to pillar-robbing by
miners and natural causes, had already resulted in large
areas breaking down and being entirely lost, and that
would continue in the future. Much had already been done
at the majority of the collieries to put matters on a better
footing, but the warnings of subsidence, fire and explosion
during the past two years, although fortunately unaccom-
panied by serious loss of life, showed that much could yet
be done. As a whole, the coalfield was fortunate in having
a good roof above all the seams.

In the future development of the deeper workings, it did
not appear probable that there would be any radical change
from the present bord-and-pillar system of working. As a
rule, the workings were opened out by driving main or
narrow galleries in the required direction, usually about
2| ft. in width by 4 to 6 feet in height. That work was
done by a special class of men, who were paid a footage
rate or, sometimes, a combined coal and footage rate.
A second gang, or sometimes two gangs, of ordinary miners
followed behind the main drivers and removed the side and
floor coal necessary to give the galleries the requisite
height and width. Good progress could be made in that
way where there was not much water to be dealt with, but,
as a rule, and provided that the main drivers could be got
to work as required, it would be found better to make the
original main gallery of reasonable dimensions—say, 6 ft.
by 6 ft. In the future, in order to deal properly with the
question of ventilation, gas, gob fires, &c., it seemed likely
that all workings would be laid out on a system of panels
and the main haulage-roads driven in the solid between two
series of panels out towards the boundaries, the coal in each
panel being got as soon as possible after completion and the
barriers brought back eventually after all the panels had
been worked out. It was not advisable to allow the coal to
remain in pillars for any great length of time, owing to the
perishing which took place round the edges, and, if possible,
the working of the “ brokens ” should be started within
12 or 18 months of the completion of each panel. Owing to
the presence of “jhama,” dykes and faults, each set of
workings which have to deal with somewhat different con-
ditions and the laying-out of any particular area would
depend on these points and on the dip of the measure. A
further point which increased the difficulty of working,
especially where there was water, was the disinclination of
the natives to work uphill the moment the gradient became
greater than 1 in 5 or 1 in 6. That was due to their objec-
tion to having pieces of coal rolling down on their unpro-
tected legs and feet.

About 90 per cent, of the workings, whether incline or
shaft, lay to the dip, and consequently the ordinary main
haulage system was that in most common use. Endless-rope
systems, which might otherwise be adopted, were handi-
capped by the prejudice of the Indian miner, who, as a
general rule, must have his tub waiting for him before he
would start to cut any coal, and when that tub had been
filled would, unless there was another tub ready for him,
wait until the filled tub was taken away and a fresh tub
brought. About two tubs per day might be taken as a fair
average for a miner working in the solid coal. Small main-
and-tail sets, each dealing with the coal from one or more
blocks of workings, would probably come to the front where
deep or moderately deep shafts were being worked.

There was a large quantity of water to be dealt with in
the coalfield in addition to that which found its way into
the workings during the rains, and in sinking a pair of deep
shafts towards the centre of the field not less than from 400
to 500 gallons of water per minute might have to be
reckoned with, while pumps of even double that capacity
might be required to ensure a safe margin. Up to the
present, pumps of the Tangye and Worthington types had
had the field almost entirely to themselves, and the Tangye
Special, with its advantages and its drawbacks, was to be

found in almost every colliery, although, owing to the need
for larger pumps for shaft and other work, many other types
were now being introduced. Although in one case electric
sinking pumps had been made use of, it was probable that at
the majority of collieries steam sets would be utilised, even
where electric power was available, owing to the difficulty
experienced in keeping the motor and pump in good order
in the Indian climate during the periods when the set was
out of use. As to the main shaft pumps, electric examples
already installed, whether of the reciprocating or centrifugal
type, had given excellent results, and where they could be
given regular work, and had not to be laid off for long
intervals, there was no question of their superiority over
steam-driven sets. Regarding dip pumps, the bulk of the
workings in all existing collieries lay to the dip, conse-
quently a large proportion of the water must be dealt with
at the working faces. With inclined workings and shallow
depths, the maintenance of steam pumps close to the working
face had presented no special difficulty, as air-shafts were
sunk at convenient points as the face of the workings
advanced. With deeper shafts and more extensive workings,
however, the difficulty would increase, and, where electricity
could not be installed, the question of a compressed-air
installation, or even of hydraulic pumping, would have to
be considered. There appeared to be an opening, in some
casees, for small oil- or petrol-driven sets, where no other
power was available.

Up to the present there had been practically no attempt
made at artificial ventilation. In almost every case natural
ventilation, sometimes assisted by the exhaust and escaping
steam from the underground pumps and ranges of steam
pipes, was relied upon. In the case of new shafts and
workings, there would be little difficulty in arranging for a
fan and in laying out the workings to the best effect, but,
where there were already areas worked out and no shafts
except those in use for winding, it would be difficult to
introduce a system of mechanical ventilation without
considerable expense. One of the results of the introduc-
tion of mechanical ventilation would probably be a need for
further underground supervision and the employment of
European overmen, until such time as the native pit sirdar
(overman) had been sufficiently trained to deal with the
questions introduced by a definite system of ventilation.

Cost of Working.

As to cost of working, rates and costs, as compared with
10 or 15 years ago, had increased considerably. The high
price obtained for coal, and the difficulty of obtaining
labour during 1907-1909, raised the costs of working con-
siderably, whilst the steadily increased depth from which
coal was being raised, together with the longer haulages
required, were necessitating greater capital outlay per ton
of coal raised. That would increase still more in the future,
although the centralisation of the points at which coal was
being got and the larger output obtained from each shaft
or incline tended to keep down the capital cost per ton. At
a fully-equipped colliery, the working cost at present, apart
from Calcutta charges, should amount to between Is. lOd.
and 2s. 2d. per ton, out of which the coal-getter received
lOd. to Is., the amount varying, however, very considerably
with conditions. The colliery costs varied greatly from
month to month with the fluctuations of output, which
might oscillate as much as 100 per cent, between the worst
and best months of the year. In the future, there would
be a tendency in India, as elsewhere, for costs to rise and
rates to increase, while there would be additional charges
due to the necessity for providing further and better
sanitary arrangements and good drinking water for the
miners. These points had already received attention from
some of the companies, but much had yet to be done and
the provision of a water scheme for the whole of the coal-
field, in which direction steps had already been taken,
would mean a considerable charge on the coal industry of
the district.

At present, the mining community as a whole might be
considered as almost entirely agricultural, the mining side
of their lives being only supplementary to their agricultural
home life. For the most part, the homes of the miners
were several days’ march from the mines at which they
worked, and a constant force of recruiters had to be
employed to bring in fresh miners and to keep in touch
with and make arrangements for their return after their
frequent visits to their home villages. The greater portion
returned regularly to the colliery at which they had been
working, although many were constantly on the move,
working sometimes at one place and sometimes at another.
The aim of the owners should be to induce the miners
gradually to settle permanently in the district, by giving
them at first such land as they required for cultivation on
suitable terms and thus to bring up a class of miner who
had never known any other home than that at the colliery
where he had been working, and who would prefer to work
regularly in the mines as a miner than in the fields as an
agriculturist. In many places steps had been taken in
that direction, but progress was bound to be slow and
many years would elapse before an entirely mining class of
native was created. The question of bringing to a small
area crowds of natives who had hitherto lived in isolated
villages, with primitive systems of sanitation and water
supply—which, although tolerable in a comparatively
thinly populated area, were certain, if introduced into a

crowded mining community, to ensure outbreaks of cholera
and plague—was an important matter. Any steps taken
to increase the density of the population must go hand in
hand with the provision of a sanitation and water supply
scheme. These were points which were receiving great
attention both from the colliery owners and from the
Government authorities, in proof of which latter solicitude
Mr. Greenwell mentioned the Coal District Sanitation Bill
and the Coal District Water Supply Bill.

The main breaks in the miners’ year were the monsoon
from May to July—when the miners went to their villages
to plough their land and sow their crops—and from the end
of September to the end of November, when the paddy was
ready for cutting. Consequently, the outputs of coal were
at their best from December to May, with a very great
falling-off from May to August, an improvement in August
and September, and two very poor months in October and
November. Indian coal did not stock well, and the effect
of unequal raisings could not be neutralised by accumulating
stocks during the good months. There was, therefore, an
invariable tendency towards a wagon shortage in the cold
weather (December to May), accentuated by the inadequate
facilities for dealing with the congestion of wagons in and
around Calcutta and the docks. The grain traffic, which
also came on during these months, helped to decrease the
supply of available wagons.

Concluding, Mr. Greenwell stated that the advantages of
screening and picking the coal were beginning to make
themselves felt, and the provision of screening plants
suitable for Indian conditions would necessarily follow any
future development. The Indian railway companies objected
to any type of screen which crossed over the rails and to the
use of covered wagons for the conveyance of coal. These
objections necessitated a special design of plant and the
use of telescopic and adjustable shoots which could be
raised outside the distance desired by the railway companies.
It had been found that washing as a means of taking out
the dirt from the small coal had little effect. The incombus-
tible matter in nearly the whole of the Indian coal was so
closely mingled with the coal that the percentage of ash could
only be very slightly reduced by washing. As a rule, the ash
percentage of the small coal was rather lower than that of
the steam coal. Some of the seams made a very fair quality
of hard coke, the type of oven used consisting, at a rule, of
two side-walls about 5 ft. in height and from 30 to 40 feet
in length. The walls were from 8 to 10 feet apart, and the
ends were built up, while firing, with loose bricks. Flues were
formed by passing rollers (wooden props) between the open-
ings in the base of the side-walls through which the firing
of the ovens was started while the charging was being
carried out. When the oven was ready for firing, these
rollers were drawn out. Except during the rains, a very
fair quality of coke was made, but the process was wasteful,
at least two tons of dust being used for each ton of fair-
class coke made. No attempt had been made to introduce
by-product recovery into that district, although there
seemed no reason, judging from the results given by those
installed elsewhere, why they should not prove a success
and a good market be obtained for the coke and by-
products. At present, the amount of slack and small coal
produced greatly exceeded the demand, and, consequently,
a large quantity had, in many places, been left underground.
It was chiefly in demand for brick-burning—an industry
which prevailed all over India during the winter months^
October to April. The sale of briquettes should be profit-
able. The present difficulty with regard to an installation
was the high price of tar.

Mr. E. Seymour Wood said the intrusion of the
mica-peridotite into the different seams—a thing only
seen to a large extent in India—was one of the most
interesting geological features that he had come across
in the Indian coalfields. The paper was remarkably
clear and showed the future before that large coalfield.
Seven or eight years ago, they were just scratching on
the surface like chickens, but now the pits were develop-
ing, some of them going down 2,000 or 3,000 feet, and
there was no doubt that there was a very large future
before the Indian coalfield.

Prof. Henry Louis said that, when he was in that
coalfield some eight or nine years ago, they were making
but coke, so far as be could remember, in those open,
primitive kilns. He asked Mr. Greenwell if there had
been nothing more civilised done yet, whether they had
not got as far, even, as beehive ovens. There was a
good deal of talk, when he was out, of trying various
types of ovens.

Mr. Greenwell replied that practically nothing had
been done with regard to the beehive ovens. The
collieries with which he was connected did put up a few
as an experiment, but they were not entirely satisfactory
and the results did not pay for the increase in cost. So
far as he knew, nothing further, in that line, had been
done in the Jherria coalfield. The ordinary long oven
gave fairly satisfactory results, although it wasted a
good deal of coal.

The President expressed the thanks of the institute
to Mr. Greenwell.

A memoir of the late Mr. Cuthbert Berkley, a former-